The Golden Bough

THE SPECTACLE of the great changes which annually pass over the face of the earth has powerfully impressed the minds of men in all ages, and stirred them to meditate on the causes of transformations so vast and wonderful.  Their curiosity has not been purely disinterested; for even the savage cannot fail to perceive how intimately his own life is bound up with the life of nature, and how the same processes which freeze the stream and strip the earth of vegetation menace him with extinction.  At a certain stage of development men seem to have imagined that the means of averting the threatened calamity were in their own hands, and that they could hasten or retard the flight of the seasons by magic art.  Accordingly they performed ceremonies and recited spells to make the rain to fall, the sun to shine, animals to multiply, and the fruits of the earth to grow.  In course of time the slow advance of knowledge, which has dispelled so many cherished illusions, convinced at least the more thoughtful portion of mankind that the alternations of summer and winter, of spring and autumn, were not merely the result of their own magical rites, but that some deeper cause, some mightier power, was at work behind the shifting scenes of nature.  They now pictured to themselves the growth and decay of vegetation, the birth and death of living creatures, as effects of the waxing or waning strength of divine beings, of gods and goddesses, who were born and died, who married and begot children, on the pattern of human life.

Thus the old magical theory of the seasons was displaced, or rather supplemented, by a religious theory.  For although men now attributed the annual cycle of change primarily to corresponding changes in their deities, they still thought that by performing certain magical rites they could aid the god who was the principle of life, in his struggle with the opposing principle of death.  They imagined that they could recruit his failing energies and even raise him from the dead.  The ceremonies which they observed for this purpose were in substance a dramatic representation of the natural processes which they wished to facilitate; for it is a familiar tenet of magic that you can produce any desired effect by merely imitating it.  And as they now explained the fluctuations of growth and decay, of reproduction and dissolution, by the marriage, the death, and the rebirth or revival of the gods, their religious or rather magical dramas turned in great measure on these themes.  They set forth the fruitful union of the powers of fertility, the sad death of one at least of the divine partners, and his joyful resurrection.  Thus a religious theory was blended with a magical practice.  The combination is familiar in history.  Indeed, few religions have ever succeeded in wholly extricating themselves from the old trammels of magic.  The inconsistency of acting on two opposite principles, however it may vex the soul of the philosopher, rarely troubles the common man; indeed he is seldom even aware of it.  His affair is to act, not to analyse the motives of his action.  If mankind had always been logical and wise, history would not be a long chronicle of folly and crime.

Of the changes which the seasons bring with them, the most striking within the temperate zone are those which affect vegetation.  The influence of the seasons on animals, though great, is not nearly so manifest.  Hence it is natural that in the magical dramas designed to dispel winter and bring back spring the emphasis should be laid on vegetation, and that trees and plants should figure in them more prominently than beasts and birds.  Yet the two sides of life, the vegetable and the animal, were not dissociated in the minds of those who observed the ceremonies.  Indeed they commonly believed that the tie between the animal and the vegetable world was even closer than it really is; hence they often combined the dramatic representation of reviving plants with a real or a dramatic union of the sexes for the purpose of furthering at the same time and by the same act the multiplication of fruits, of animals, and of men.  To them the principle of life and fertility, whether animal or vegetable, was one and indivisible.  To live and to cause to live, to eat food and to beget children, these were the primary wants of men in the past, and they will be the primary wants of men in the future so long as the world lasts.  Other things may be added to enrich and beautify human life, but unless these wants are first satisfied, humanity itself must cease to exist.  These two things, therefore, food and children, were what men chiefly sought to procure by the performance of magical rites for the regulation of the seasons.

Nowhere, apparently, have these rites been more widely and solemnly celebrated than in the lands which border the Eastern Mediterranean.  Under the names of Osiris, Tammuz, Adonis, and Attis, the peoples of Egypt and Western Asia represented the yearly decay and revival of life, especially of vegetable life, which they personified as a god who annually died and rose again from the dead.  In name and detail the rites varied from place to place:  in substance they were the same.  The supposed death and resurrection of this oriental deity, a god of many names but of essentially one nature, is now to be examined.  We begin with Tammuz or Adonis.

The worship of Adonis was practised by the Semitic peoples of Babylonia and Syria, and the Greeks borrowed it from them as early as the seventh century before Christ.  The true name of the deity was Tammuz:  the appellation of Adonis is merely the Semitic Adon, “lord,” a title of honour by which his worshippers addressed him.  But the Greeks through a misunderstanding converted the title of honour into a proper name.  In the religious literature of Babylonia Tammuz appears as the youthful spouse or lover of Ishtar, the great mother goddess, the embodiment of the reproductive energies of nature.  The references to their connexion with each other in myth and ritual are both fragmentary and obscure, but we gather from them that every year Tammuz was believed to die, passing away from the cheerful earth to the gloomy subterranean world, and that every year his divine mistress journeyed in quest of him “to the land from which there is no returning, to the house of darkness, where dust lies on door and bolt.”  During her absence the passion of love ceased to operate:  men and beasts alike forgot to reproduce their kinds:  all life was threatened with extinction.  So intimately bound up with the goddess were the sexual functions of the whole animal kingdom that without her presence they could not be discharged.  A messenger of the great god Ea was accordingly despatched to rescue the goddess on whom so much depended.  The stern queen of the infernal regions, Allatu or Eresh-Kigal by name, reluctantly allowed Ishtar to be sprinkled with the Water of Life and to depart, in company probably with her lover Tammuz, that the two might return together to the upper world, and that with their return all nature might revive.

Laments for the departed Tammuz are contained in several Babylonian hymns, which liken him to plants that quickly fade.  He is

   “A tamarisk that in the garden has drunk no water,
    Whose crown in the field has brought forth no blossom. 
    A willow that rejoiced not by the watercourse,
    A willow whose roots were torn up. 
    A herb that in the garden had drunk no water.”

His death appears to have been annually mourned, to the shrill music of flutes, by men and women about midsummer in the month named after him, the month of Tammuz.  The dirges were seemingly chanted over an effigy of the dead god, which was washed with pure water, anointed with oil, and clad in a red robe, while the fumes of incense rose into the air, as if to stir his dormant senses by their pungent fragrance and wake him from the sleep of death.  In one of these dirges, inscribed Lament of the Flutes for Tammuz, we seem still to hear the voices of the singers chanting the sad refrain and to catch, like far-away music, the wailing notes of the flutes: 

“At his vanishing away she lifts up a lament,
‘Oh my child!’ at his vanishing away she lifts up a lament;
‘My Damu!’ at his vanishing away she lifts up a lament. 
‘My enchanter and priest!’ at his vanishing away
she lifts up a lament,
At the shining cedar, rooted in a spacious place,
In Eanna, above and below, she lifts up a lament. 
Like the lament that a house lifts up for its master,
lifts she up a lament,
Like the lament that a city lifts up for its lord,
lifts she up a lament. 
Her lament is the lament for a herb that grows not in the bed,
Her lament is the lament for the corn that grows not in the ear. 
Her chamber is a possession that brings not forth a possession,
A weary woman, a weary child, forspent. 
Her lament is for a great river, where no willows grow,
Her lament is for a field, where corn and herbs grow not. 
Her lament is for a pool, where fishes grow not. 
Her lament is for a thickest of reeds, where no reeds grow. 
Her lament is for woods, where tamarisks grow not. 
Her lament is for a wilderness where no cypresses (?) grow. 
Her lament is for the depth of a garden of trees,
where honey and wine grow not. 
Her lament is for meadows, where no plants grow. 
Her lament is for a palace, where length of life grows not.”

The tragical story and the melancholy rites of Adonis are better known to us from the descriptions of Greek writers than from the fragments of Babylonian literature or the brief reference of the prophet Ezekiel, who saw the women of Jerusalem weeping for Tammuz at the north gate of the temple.  Mirrored in the glass of Greek mythology, the oriental deity appears as a comely youth beloved by Aphrodite.  In his infancy the goddess hid him in a chest, which she gave in charge to Persephone, queen of the nether world.  But when Persephone opened the chest and beheld the beauty of the babe, she refused to give him back to Aphrodite, though the goddess of love went down herself to hell to ransom her dear one from the power of the grave.  The dispute between the two goddesses of love and death was settled by Zeus, who decreed that Adonis should abide with Persephone in the under world for one part of the year, and with Aphrodite in the upper world for another part.  At last the fair youth was killed in hunting by a wild boar, or by the jealous Ares, who turned himself into the likeness of a boar in order to compass the death of his rival.  Bitterly did Aphrodite lament her loved and lost Adonis.  In this form of the myth, the contest between Aphrodite and Persephone for the possession of Adonis clearly reflects the struggle between Ishtar and Allatu in the land of the dead, while the decision of Zeus that Adonis is to spend one part of the year under ground and another part above ground is merely a Greek version of the annual disappearance and reappearance of Tammuz.