The Education of Henry Adams

THE PERFECTION OF HUMAN SOCIETY (1864)

Minister Adams’s success in stopping the rebel rams fixed his position once for all in English society.  From that moment he could afford to drop the character of diplomatist, and assume what, for an American Minister in London, was an exclusive diplomatic advantage, the character of a kind of American Peer of the Realm.  The British never did things by halves.  Once they recognized a man’s right to social privileges, they accepted him as one of themselves.  Much as Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli were accepted as leaders of Her Majesty’s domestic Opposition, Minister Adams had a rank of his own as a kind of leader of Her Majesty’s American Opposition.  Even the Times conceded it.  The years of struggle were over, and Minister Adams rapidly gained a position which would have caused his father or grandfather to stare with incredulous envy.

This Anglo-American form of diplomacy was chiefly undiplomatic, and had the peculiar effect of teaching a habit of diplomacy useless or mischievous everywhere but in London.  Nowhere else in the world could one expect to figure in a role so unprofessional.  The young man knew no longer what character he bore.  Private secretary in the morning, son in the afternoon, young man about town in the evening, the only character he never bore was that of diplomatist, except when he wanted a card to some great function.  His diplomatic education was at an end; he seldom met a diplomat, and never had business with one; he could be of no use to them, or they to him; but he drifted inevitably into society, and, do what he might, his next education must be one of English social life.  Tossed between the horns of successive dilemmas, he reached his twenty-sixth birthday without the power of earning five dollars in any occupation.  His friends in the army were almost as badly off, but even army life ruined a young man less fatally than London society.  Had he been rich, this form of ruin would have mattered nothing; but the young men of 1865 were none of them rich; all had to earn a living; yet they had reached high positions of responsibility and power in camps and Courts, without a dollar of their own and with no tenure of office.

Henry Adams had failed to acquire any useful education; he should at least have acquired social experience.  Curiously enough, he failed here also.  From the European or English point of view, he had no social experience, and never got it.  Minister Adams happened on a political interregnum owing to Lord Palmerston’s personal influence from 1860 to 1865; but this political interregnum was less marked than the social still-stand during the same years.  The Prince Consort was dead; the Queen had retired; the Prince of Wales was still a boy.  In its best days, Victorian society had never been “smart.”  During the forties, under the influence of Louis Philippe, Courts affected to be simple, serious and middle class; and they succeeded.  The taste of Louis Philippe was bourgeois beyond any taste except that of Queen Victoria.  Style lingered in the background with the powdered footman behind the yellow chariot, but speaking socially the Queen had no style save what she inherited.  Balmoral was a startling revelation of royal taste.  Nothing could be worse than the toilettes at Court unless it were the way they were worn.  One’s eyes might be dazzled by jewels, but they were heirlooms, and if any lady appeared well dressed, she was either a foreigner or “fast.”  Fashion was not fashionable in London until the Americans and the Jews were let loose.  The style of London toilette universal in 1864 was grotesque, like Monckton Milnes on horseback in Rotten Row.

Society of this sort might fit a young man in some degree for editing Shakespeare or Swift, but had little relation with the society of 1870, and none with that of 1900.  Owing to other causes, young Adams never got the full training of such style as still existed.  The embarrassments of his first few seasons socially ruined him.  His own want of experience prevented his asking introductions to the ladies who ruled society; his want of friends prevented his knowing who these ladies were; and he had every reason to expect snubbing if he put himself in evidence.  This sensitiveness was thrown away on English society, where men and women treated each others’ advances much more brutally than those of strangers, but young Adams was son and private secretary too; he could not be as thick-skinned as an Englishman.  He was not alone.  Every young diplomat, and most of the old ones, felt awkward in an English house from a certainty that they were not precisely wanted there, and a possibility that they might be told so.

If there was in those days a country house in England which had a right to call itself broad in views and large in tastes, it was Bretton in Yorkshire; and if there was a hostess who had a right to consider herself fashionable as well as charming, it was Lady Margaret Beaumont; yet one morning at breakfast there, sitting by her side —­ not for his own merits —­ Henry Adams heard her say to herself in her languid and liberal way, with her rich voice and musing manner, looking into her tea-cup:  “I don’t think I care for foreigners!” Horror-stricken, not so much on his own account as on hers, the young man could only execute himself as gaily as he might:  “But Lady Margaret, please make one small exception for me!” Of course she replied what was evident, that she did not call him a foreigner, and her genial Irish charm made the slip of tongue a happy courtesy; but none the less she knew that, except for his momentary personal introduction, he was in fact a foreigner, and there was no imaginable reason why she should like him, or any other foreigner, unless it were because she was bored by natives.  She seemed to feel that her indifference needed a reason to excuse itself in her own eyes, and she showed the subconscious sympathy of the Irish nature which never feels itself perfectly at home even in England.  She, too, was some shadowy shade un-English.

Always conscious of this barrier, while the war lasted the private secretary hid himself among the herd of foreigners till he found his relations fixed and unchangeable.  He never felt himself in society, and he never knew definitely what was meant as society by those who were in it.  He saw far enough to note a score of societies which seemed quite independent of each other.  The smartest was the smallest, and to him almost wholly strange.  The largest was the sporting world, also unknown to him except through the talk of his acquaintances.  Between or beyond these lay groups of nebulous societies.  His lawyer friends, like Evarts, frequented legal circles where one still sat over the wine and told anecdotes of the bench and bar; but he himself never set eyes on a judge except when his father took him to call on old Lord Lyndhurst, where they found old Lord Campbell, both abusing old Lord Brougham.  The Church and the Bishops formed several societies which no secretary ever saw except as an interloper.  The Army; the Navy; the Indian Service; the medical and surgical professions; City people; artists; county families; the Scotch, and indefinite other subdivisions of society existed, which were as strange to each other as they were to Adams.  At the end of eight or ten seasons in London society he professed to know less about it, or how to enter it, than he did when he made his first appearance at Miss Burdett Coutts’s in May, 1861.

Sooner or later every young man dropped into a set or circle, and frequented the few houses that were willing to harbor him.  An American who neither hunted nor raced, neither shot nor fished nor gambled, and was not marriageable, had no need to think of society at large.  Ninety-nine houses in every hundred were useless to him, a greater bore to him than he to them.  Thus the question of getting into —­ or getting out of —­ society which troubled young foreigners greatly, settled itself after three or four years of painful speculation.  Society had no unity; one wandered about in it like a maggot in cheese; it was not a hansom cab, to be got into, or out of, at dinner-time.

Therefore he always professed himself ignorant of society; he never knew whether he had been in it or not, but from the accounts of his future friends, like General Dick Taylor or George Smalley, and of various ladies who reigned in the seventies, he inclined to think that he knew very little about it.  Certain great houses and certain great functions of course he attended, like every one else who could get cards, but even of these the number was small that kept an interest or helped education.  In seven years he could remember only two that seemed to have any meaning for him, and he never knew what that meaning was.  Neither of the two was official; neither was English in interest; and both were scandals to the philosopher while they scarcely enlightened men of the world.

One was at Devonshire House, an ordinary, unpremeditated evening reception.  Naturally every one went to Devonshire House if asked, and the rooms that night were fairly full of the usual people.  The private secretary was standing among the rest, when Mme. de Castiglione entered, the famous beauty of the Second Empire.  How beautiful she may have been, or indeed what sort of beauty she was, Adams never knew, because the company, consisting of the most refined and aristocratic society in the world, instantly formed a lane, and stood in ranks to stare at her, while those behind mounted on chairs to look over their neighbors’ heads; so that the lady walked through this polite mob, stared completely out of countenance, and fled the house at once.  This was all!

The other strange spectacle was at Stafford House, April 13, 1864, when, in a palace gallery that recalled Paolo Veronese’s pictures of Christ in his scenes of miracle, Garibaldi, in his gray capote over his red shirt, received all London, and three duchesses literally worshipped at his feet.  Here, at all events, a private secretary had surely caught the last and highest touch of social experience; but what it meant —­ what social, moral, or mental development it pointed out to the searcher of truth —­ was not a matter to be treated fully by a leader in the Morning Post or even by a sermon in Westminster Abbey.  Mme. de Castiglione and Garibaldi covered, between them, too much space for simple measurement; their curves were too complex for mere arithmetic.  The task of bringing the two into any common relation with an ordered social system tending to orderly development —­ in London or elsewhere —­ was well fitted for Algernon Swinburne or Victor Hugo, but was beyond any process yet reached by the education of Henry Adams, who would probably, even then, have rejected, as superficial or supernatural, all the views taken by any of the company who looked on with him at these two interesting and perplexing sights.

From the Court, or Court society, a mere private secretary got nothing at all, or next to nothing, that could help him on his road through life.  Royalty was in abeyance.  One was tempted to think in these years, 1860-65, that the nicest distinction between the very best society and the second-best, was their attitude towards royalty.  The one regarded royalty as a bore, and avoided it, or quietly said that the Queen had never been in society.  The same thing might have been said of fully half the peerage.  Adams never knew even the names of half the rest; he never exchanged ten words with any member of the royal family; he never knew any one in those years who showed interest in any member of the royal family, or who would have given five shillings for the opinion of any royal person on any subject; or cared to enter any royal or noble presence, unless the house was made attractive by as much social effort as would have been necessary in other countries where no rank existed.  No doubt, as one of a swarm, young Adams slightly knew various gilded youth who frequented balls and led such dancing as was most in vogue, but they seemed to set no value on rank; their anxiety was only to know where to find the best partners before midnight, and the best supper after midnight.  To the American, as to Arthur Pendennis or Barnes Newcome, the value of social position and knowledge was evident enough; he valued it at rather more than it was worth to him; but it was a shadowy thing which seemed to vary with every street corner; a thing which had shifting standards, and which no one could catch outright.  The half-dozen leaders and beauties of his time, with great names and of the utmost fashion, made some of the poorest marriages, and the least showy careers.

Tired of looking on at society from the outside, Adams grew to loathe the sight of his Court dress; to groan at every announcement of a Court ball; and to dread every invitation to a formal dinner.  The greatest social event gave not half the pleasure that one could buy for ten shillings at the opera when Patti sang Cherubino or Gretchen, and not a fourth of the education.  Yet this was not the opinion of the best judges.  Lothrop Motley, who stood among the very best, said to him early in his apprenticeship that the London dinner and the English country house were the perfection of human society.  The young man meditated over it, uncertain of its meaning.  Motley could not have thought the dinner itself perfect, since there was not then —­ outside of a few bankers or foreigners —­ a good cook or a good table in London, and nine out of ten of the dinners that Motley ate came from Gunter’s, and all were alike.  Every one, especially in young society, complained bitterly that Englishmen did not know a good dinner when they ate it, and could not order one if they were given carte blanche.  Henry Adams was not a judge, and knew no more than they, but he heard the complaints, and he could not think that Motley meant to praise the English cuisine.

Equally little could Motley have meant that dinners were good to look at.  Nothing could be worse than the toilettes; nothing less artistic than the appearance of the company.  One’s eyes might be dazzled by family diamonds, but, if an American woman were present, she was sure to make comments about the way the jewels were worn.  If there was a well-dressed lady at table, she was either an American or “fast.”  She attracted as much notice as though she were on the stage.  No one could possibly admire an English dinner-table.

Least of all did Motley mean that the taste or the manners were perfect.  The manners of English society were notorious, and the taste was worse.  Without exception every American woman rose in rebellion against English manners.  In fact, the charm of London which made most impression on Americans was the violence of its contrasts; the extreme badness of the worst, making background for the distinction, refinement, or wit of a few, just as the extreme beauty of a few superb women was more effective against the plainness of the crowd.  The result was mediaeval, and amusing; sometimes coarse to a degree that might have startled a roustabout, and sometimes courteous and considerate to a degree that suggested King Arthur’s Round Table; but this artistic contrast was surely not the perfection that Motley had in his mind.  He meant something scholarly, worldly, and modern; he was thinking of his own tastes.

Probably he meant that, in his favorite houses, the tone was easy, the talk was good, and the standard of scholarship was high.  Even there he would have been forced to qualify his adjectives.  No German would have admitted that English scholarship was high, or that it was scholarship at all, or that any wish for scholarship existed in England.  Nothing that seemed to smell of the shop or of the lecture-room was wanted.  One might as well have talked of Renan’s Christ at the table of the Bishop of London, as talk of German philology at the table of an Oxford don.  Society, if a small literary class could be called society, wanted to be amused in its old way.  Sydney Smith, who had amused, was dead; so was Macaulay, who instructed if he did not amuse; Thackeray died at Christmas, 1863; Dickens never felt at home, and seldom appeared, in society; Bulwer Lytton was not sprightly; Tennyson detested strangers; Carlyle was mostly detested by them; Darwin never came to town; the men of whom Motley must have been thinking were such as he might meet at Lord Houghton’s breakfasts:  Grote, Jowett, Milman, or Froude; Browning, Matthew Arnold, or Swinburne; Bishop Wilberforce, Venables, or Hayward; or perhaps Gladstone, Robert Lowe, or Lord Granville.  A relatively small class, commonly isolated, suppressed, and lost at the usual London dinner, such society as this was fairly familiar even to a private secretary, but to the literary American it might well seem perfection since he could find nothing of the sort in America.  Within the narrow limits of this class, the American Legation was fairly at home; possibly a score of houses, all liberal, and all literary, but perfect only in the eyes of a Harvard College historian.  They could teach little worth learning, for their tastes were antiquated and their knowledge was ignorance to the next generation.  What was altogether fatal for future purposes, they were only English.

A social education in such a medium was bound to be useless in any other, yet Adams had to learn it to the bottom.  The one thing needful for a private secretary, was that he should not only seem, but should actually be, at home.  He studied carefully, and practised painfully, what seemed to be the favorite accomplishments of society.  Perhaps his nervousness deceived him; perhaps he took for an ideal of others what was only his reflected image; but he conceived that the perfection of human society required that a man should enter a drawing-room where he was a total stranger, and place himself on the hearth-rug, his back to the fire, with an air of expectant benevolence, without curiosity, much as though he had dropped in at a charity concert, kindly disposed to applaud the performers and to overlook mistakes.  This ideal rarely succeeded in youth, and towards thirty it took a form of modified insolence and offensive patronage; but about sixty it mellowed into courtesy, kindliness, and even deference to the young which had extraordinary charm both in women and in men.  Unfortunately Adams could not wait till sixty for education; he had his living to earn; and the English air of patronage would earn no income for him anywhere else.

After five or six years of constant practice, any one can acquire the habit of going from one strange company to another without thinking much of one’s self or of them, as though silently reflecting that “in a world where we are all insects, no insect is alien; perhaps they are human in parts”; but the dreamy habit of mind which comes from solitude in crowds is not fitness for social success except in London.  Everywhere else it is injury.  England was a social kingdom whose social coinage had no currency elsewhere.

Englishwomen, from the educational point of view, could give nothing until they approached forty years old.  Then they become very interesting —­ very charming —­ to the man of fifty.  The young American was not worth the young Englishwoman’s notice, and never received it.  Neither understood the other.  Only in the domestic relation, in the country —­ never in society at large —­ a young American might accidentally make friends with an Englishwoman of his own age, but it never happened to Henry Adams.  His susceptible nature was left to the mercy of American girls, which was professional duty rather than education as long as diplomacy held its own.

Thus he found himself launched on waters where he had never meant to sail, and floating along a stream which carried him far from his port.  His third season in London society saw the end of his diplomatic education, and began for him the social life of a young man who felt at home in England —­ more at home there than anywhere else.  With this feeling, the mere habit of going to garden-parties, dinners, receptions, and balls had nothing to do.  One might go to scores without a sensation of home.  One might stay in no end of country houses without forgetting that one was a total stranger and could never be anything else.  One might bow to half the dukes and duchesses in England, and feel only the more strange.  Hundreds of persons might pass with a nod and never come nearer.  Close relation in a place like London is a personal mystery as profound as chemical affinity.  Thousands pass, and one separates himself from the mass to attach himself to another, and so make, little by little, a group.

One morning, April 27, 1863, he was asked to breakfast with Sir Henry Holland, the old Court physician who had been acquainted with every American Minister since Edward Everett, and was a valuable social ally, who had the courage to try to be of use to everybody, and who, while asking the private secretary to breakfast one day, was too discreet to betray what he might have learned about rebel doings at his breakfast-table the day before.  He had been friendly with the Legation, in the teeth of society, and was still bearing up against the weight of opinion, so that young Adams could not decline his invitations, although they obliged him to breakfast in Brook Street at nine o’clock in the morning, alternately with Mr. James M. Mason.  Old Dr. Holland was himself as hale as a hawk, driving all day bare-headed about London, and eating Welsh rarebit every night before bed; he thought that any young man should be pleased to take his early muffin in Brook Street, and supply a few crumbs of war news for the daily peckings of eminent patients.  Meekly, when summoned, the private secretary went, and on reaching the front door, this particular morning, he found there another young man in the act of rapping the knocker.  They entered the breakfastroom together, where they were introduced to each other, and Adams learned that the other guest was a Cambridge undergraduate, Charles Milnes Gaskell, son of James Milnes Gaskell, the Member for Wenlock; another of the Yorkshire Milneses, from Thornes near Wakefield.  Fate had fixed Adams to Yorkshire.  By another chance it happened that young Milnes Gaskell was intimate at Cambridge with William Everett who was also about to take his degree.  A third chance inspired Mr. Evarts with a fancy for visiting Cambridge, and led William Everett to offer his services as host.  Adams acted as courier to Mr. Evarts, and at the end of May they went down for a few days, when William Everett did the honors as host with a kindness and attention that made his cousin sorely conscious of his own social shortcomings.  Cambridge was pretty, and the dons were kind.  Mr. Evarts enjoyed his visit but this was merely a part of the private secretary’s day’s work.  What affected his whole life was the intimacy then begun with Milnes Gaskell and his circle of undergraduate friends, just about to enter the world.

Intimates are predestined.  Adams met in England a thousand people, great and small; jostled against every one, from royal princes to gin-shop loafers; attended endless official functions and private parties; visited every part of the United Kingdom and was not quite a stranger at the Legations in Paris and Rome; he knew the societies of certain country houses, and acquired habits of Sunday-afternoon calls; but all this gave him nothing to do, and was life wasted.  For him nothing whatever could be gained by escorting American ladies to drawing-rooms or American gentlemen to levees at St. James’s Palace, or bowing solemnly to people with great titles, at Court balls, or even by awkwardly jostling royalty at garden-parties; all this was done for the Government, and neither President Lincoln nor Secretary Seward would ever know enough of their business to thank him for doing what they did not know how to get properly done by their own servants; but for Henry Adams —­ not private secretary —­ all the time taken up by such duties was wasted.  On the other hand, his few personal intimacies concerned him alone, and the chance that made him almost a Yorkshireman was one that must have started under the Heptarchy.

More than any other county in England, Yorkshire retained a sort of social independence of London.  Scotland itself was hardly more distinct.  The Yorkshire type had always been the strongest of the British strains; the Norwegian and the Dane were a different race from the Saxon.  Even Lancashire had not the mass and the cultivation of the West Riding.  London could never quite absorb Yorkshire, which, in its turn had no great love for London and freely showed it.  To a certain degree, evident enough to Yorkshiremen, Yorkshire was not English —­ or was all England, as they might choose to express it.  This must have been the reason why young Adams was drawn there rather than elsewhere.  Monckton Milnes alone took the trouble to draw him, and possibly Milnes was the only man in England with whom Henry Adams, at that moment, had a chance of calling out such an un-English effort.  Neither Oxford nor Cambridge nor any region south of the Humber contained a considerable house where a young American would have been sought as a friend.  Eccentricity alone did not account for it.  Monckton Milnes was a singular type, but his distant cousin, James Milnes Gaskell, was another, quite as marked, in an opposite sense.  Milnes never seemed willing to rest; Milnes Gaskell never seemed willing to move.  In his youth one of a very famous group —­ Arthur Hallam, Tennyson, Manning, Gladstone, Francis Doyle —­ and regarded as one of the most promising; an adorer of George Canning; in Parliament since coming of age; married into the powerful connection of the Wynns of Wynstay; rich according to Yorkshire standards; intimate with his political leaders; he was one of the numerous Englishmen who refuse office rather than make the effort of carrying it, and want power only to make it a source of indolence.  He was a voracious reader and an admirable critic; he had forty years of parliamentary tradition on his memory; he liked to talk and to listen; he liked his dinner and, in spite of George Canning, his dry champagne; he liked wit and anecdote; but he belonged to the generation of 1830, a generation which could not survive the telegraph and railway, and which even Yorkshire could hardly produce again.  To an American he was a character even more unusual and more fascinating than his distant cousin Lord Houghton.

Mr. Milnes Gaskell was kind to the young American whom his son brought to the house, and Mrs. Milnes Gaskell was kinder, for she thought the American perhaps a less dangerous friend than some Englishman might be, for her son, and she was probably right.  The American had the sense to see that she was herself one of the most intelligent and sympathetic women in England; her sister, Miss Charlotte Wynn, was another; and both were of an age and a position in society that made their friendship a complirnent as well as a pleasure.  Their consent and approval settled the matter.  In England, the family is a serious fact; once admitted to it, one is there for life.  London might utterly vanish from one’s horizon, but as long as life lasted, Yorkshire lived for its friends.

In the year 1857, Mr. James Milnes Gaskell, who had sat for thirty years in Parliament as one of the Members for the borough of Wenlock in Shropshire, bought Wenlock Abbey and the estate that included the old monastic buildings.  This new, or old, plaything amused Mrs. Milnes Gaskell.  The Prior’s house, a charming specimen of fifteenth-century architecture, had been long left to decay as a farmhouse.  She put it in order, and went there to spend a part of the autumn of 1864.  Young Adams was one of her first guests, and drove about Wenlock Edge and the Wrekin with her, learning the loveliness of this exquisite country, and its stores of curious antiquity.  It was a new and charming existence; an experience greatly to be envied —­ ideal repose and rural Shakespearian peace —­ but a few years of it were likely to complete his education, and fit him to act a fairly useful part in life as an Englishman, an ecclesiastic, and a contemporary of Chaucer.