Politics: A Treatise on Government

It now remains for us to say whether the happiness of any individual man and the city is the same or different:  but this also is evident; for whosoever supposes that riches will make a person happy, must place the happiness of the city in riches if it possesses them; those who prefer a life which enjoys a tyrannic power over others will also think, that the city which has many others under its command is most happy:  thus also if any one approves a man for his virtue, he will think the most worthy city the happiest:  but here there are two particulars which require consideration, one of which is, whether it is the most eligible life to be a member of the community and enjoy the rights of a citizen, or whether to live as a stranger, without interfering in public affairs; and also what form of government is to be preferred, and what disposition of the state is best; whether the whole community should be eligible to a share in the administration, or only the greater part, and some only:  as this, therefore, is a subject of political examination and speculation, and not what concerns the individual, and the first of these is what we are at present engaged in, the one of these I am not obliged to speak to, the other is the proper business of my present design.  It is evident that government must be the best which is so established, that every one therein may have it in his power to act virtuously and live happily:  but some, who admit that a life o! virtue is most eligible, still doubt which is preferable a public life of active virtue, or one entirely disengaged from what is without and spent in contemplation; which some say is the only one worthy of a philosopher; and one of these two different modes of life both now and formerly seem to have been chosen by all those who were the most virtuous men; I mean the public or philosophic.  And yet it is of no little consequence on which side the truth lies; for a man of sense must naturally incline to the better choice; both as an individual and a citizen.  Some think that a tyrannic government over those near us is the greatest injustice; but that a political one is not unjust:  but that still is a restraint on the pleasures and tranquillity of life.  Others hold the quite contrary opinion, and think that a public and active life is the only life for man:  for that private persons have no opportunity of practising any one virtue, more than they have who are engaged in public life the management of the [1324b] state.  These are their sentiments; others say, that a tyrannical and despotical mode of government is the only happy one; for even amongst some free states the object of their laws seems to be to tyrannise over their neighbours:  so that the generality of political institutions, wheresoever dispersed, if they have any one common object in view, have all of them this, to conquer and govern.  It is evident, both from the laws of the Lacedaemonians and Cretans, as well as by the manner in which they educated their children, that all which they had in view was to make them soldiers:  besides, among all nations, those who have power enough and reduce others to servitude are honoured on that account; as were the Scythians, Persians, Thracians, and Gauls:  with some there are laws to heighten the virtue of courage; thus they tell us that at Carthage they allowed every person to wear as many rings for distinction as he had served campaigns.  There was also a law in Macedonia, that a man who had not himself killed an enemy should be obliged to wear a halter; among the Scythians, at a festival, none were permitted to drink out of the cup was carried about who had not done the same thing.  Among the Iberians, a warlike nation, they fixed as many columns upon a man’s tomb as he had slain enemies:  and among different nations different things of this sort prevail, some of them established by law, others by custom.  Probably it may seem too absurd to those who are willing to take this subject into their consideration to inquire whether it is the business of a legislator to be able to point out by what means a state may govern and tyrannise over its neighbours, whether they will, or will not:  for how can that belong either to the politician or legislator which is unlawful? for that cannot be lawful which is done not only justly, but unjustly also:  for a conquest may be unjustly made.  But we see nothing of this in the arts:  for it is the business neither of the physician nor the pilot to use either persuasion or force, the one to his patients, the other to his passengers:  and yet many seem to think a despotic government is a political one, and what they would not allow to be just or proper, if exercised over themselves, they will not blush to exercise over others; for they endeavour to be wisely governed themselves, but think it of no consequence whether others are so or not:  but a despotic power is absurd, except only where nature has framed the one party for dominion, the other for subordination; and therefore no one ought to assume it over all in general, but those only which are the proper objects thereof:  thus no one should hunt men either for food or sacrifice, but what is fit for those purposes, and these are wild animals which are eatable.

Now a city which is well governed might be very [1325a] happy in itself while it enjoyed a good system of laws, although it should happen to be so situated as to have no connection with any other state, though its constitution should not be framed for war or conquest; for it would then have no occasion for these.  It is evident therefore that the business of war is to be considered as commendable, not as a final end, but as the means of procuring it.  It is the duty of a good legislator to examine carefully into his state; and the nature of the people, and how they may partake of every intercourse, of a good life, and of the happiness which results from it:  and in this respect some laws and customs differ from others.  It is also the duty of a legislator, if he has any neighbouring states to consider in what manner he shall oppose each of them’ or what good offices he shall show them.  But what should be the final end of the best governments will be considered hereafter.