Politics: A Treatise on Government

There are two things which of all others most evidently occasion a revolution in an oligarchy; one is, when the people are ill used, for then every individual is ripe for [1305b] sedition; more particularly if one of the oligarchy should happen to be their leader; as Lygdamis, at Naxus, who was afterwards tyrant of that island.  Seditions also which arise from different causes will differ from each other; for sometimes a revolution is brought about by the rich who have no share in the administration, which is in the hands of a very few indeed:  and this happened at Massilia, Ister, Heraclea, and other cities; for those who had no share in the government ceased not to raise disputes till they were admitted to it:  first the elder brothers, and then the younger also:  for in some places the father and son are never in office at the same time; in others the elder and younger brother:  and where this is observed the oligarchy partakes something of a free state.  At Ister it was changed into a democracy; in Heraclea, instead of being in the hands of a few, it consisted of six hundred.  At Cnidus the oligarchy was destroyed by the nobles quarrelling with each other, because the government was in the hands of so few:  for there, as we have just mentioned, if the father was in office, the son could not; or, if there were many brothers, the eldest only; for the people, taking advantage of their disputes, elected one of the nobles for their general, and got the victory:  for where there are seditions government is weak.  And formerly at Erithria, during the oligarchy of the Basilides, although the state flourished greatly under their excellent management, yet because the people were displeased that the power should be in the hands of so few, they changed the government.  Oligarchies also are subject to revolutions, from those who are in office therein, from the quarrels of the demagogues with each other.  The demagogues are of two sorts; one who flatter the few when they are in power:  for even these have their demagogues; such was Charicles at Athens, who had great influence over the thirty; and, in the same manner, Phrynichus over the four hundred.  The others are those demagogues who have a share in the oligarchy, and flatter the people:  such were the state-guardians at Larissa, who flattered the people because they were elected by them.  And this will always happen in every oligarchy where the magistrates do not elect themselves, but are chosen out of men either of great fortune or certain ranks, by the soldiers or by the people; as was the custom at Abydos.  And when the judicial department is not in the hands of the supreme power, the demagogues, favouring the people in their causes, overturn the government; which happened at Heraclea in Pontus:  and also when some desire to contract the power of the oligarchy into fewer hands; for those who endeavour to support an equality are obliged to apply to the people for assistance.  An oligarchy is also subject to revolutions when the nobility spend their fortunes by luxury; for such persons are desirous of innovations, and either endeavour to be tyrants themselves or to support others in being so, as [1306a] Hypparinus supported Dionysius of Syracuse.  And at Amphipolis one Cleotimus collected a colony of Chal-cidians, and when they came set them to quarrel with the rich:  and at AEgina a certain person who brought an action against Chares attempted on that account to alter the government.  Sometimes they will try to raise commotions, sometimes they will rob the public, and then quarrel with each other, or else fight with those who endeavour to detect them; which was the case at Apollonia in Pontus.  But if the members of an oligarchy agree among themselves the state is not very easily destroyed without some external force.  Pharsalus is a proof of this, where, though the place is small, yet the citizens have great power, from the prudent use they make of it.  An oligarchy also will be destroyed when they create another oligarchy under it; that is, when the management of public affairs is in the hands of a few, and not equally, but when all of them do not partake of the supreme power, as happened once at Elis, where the supreme power in general was in the hands of a very few out of whom a senate was chosen, consisting but of ninety’ who held their places for life; and their mode of election was calculated to preserve the power amongst each other’s families, like the senators at Lacedaemon.  An oligarchy is liable to a revolution both in time of war and peace; in war, because through a distrust in the citizens the government is obliged to employ mercenary troops, and he to whom they give the command of the army will very often assume the tyranny, as Timophanes did at Corinth; and if they appoint more than one general, they will very probably establish a dynasty:  and sometimes, through fear of this, they are forced to let the people in general have some share in the government, because they are obliged to employ them.  In peace, from their want of confidence in each other, they will entrust the guardianship of the state to mercenaries and their general, who will be an arbiter between them, and sometimes become master of both, which happened at Larissa, when Simos and the Aleuadae had the chief power.  The same thing happened at Abydos, during the time of the political clubs, of which Iphiades’ was one.  Commotions also will happen in an oligarchy from one party’s overbearing and insulting another, or from their quarrelling about their law-suits or marriages.  How their marriages, for instance, will have that effect has been already shown:  and in Eretria, Diagoras destroyed the oligarchy of the knights upon the same account.  A sedition also arose at Heraclea, from a certain person being condemned by the court; and at Thebes, in consequence of a man’s being guilty of adultery; [1306b] the punishment indeed which Eurytion suffered at Heraclea was just, yet it was illegally executed:  as was that at Thebes upon Archias; for their enemies endeavoured to have them publicly bound in the pillory.  Many revolutions also have been brought about in oligarchies by those who could not brook the despotism which those persons assumed who were in power, as at Cnidus and Chios.  Changes also may happen by accident in what we call a free state and in an oligarchy; wheresoever the senators, judges, and magistrates are chosen according to a certain census; for it often happens that the highest census is fixed at first; so that a few only could have a share in the government, in an oligarchy, or in a free state those of moderate fortunes only; when the city grows rich, through peace or some other happy cause, it becomes so little that every one’s fortune is equal to the census, so that the whole community may partake of all the honours of government; and this change sometimes happens by little and little, and insensible approaches, sometimes quicker.  These are the revolutions and seditions that arise in oligarchies, and the causes to which they are owing:  and indeed both democracies and oligarchies sometimes alter, not into governments of a contrary form, but into those of the same government; as, for instance, from having the supreme power in the law to vest it in the ruling party, or the contrariwise.