Beyond Good and Evil

PREJUDICES OF PHILOSOPHERS

1.  The Will to Truth, which is to tempt us to many a hazardous enterprise, the famous Truthfulness of which all philosophers have hitherto spoken with respect, what questions has this Will to Truth not laid before us!  What strange, perplexing, questionable questions!  It is already a long story; yet it seems as if it were hardly commenced.  Is it any wonder if we at last grow distrustful, lose patience, and turn impatiently away?  That this Sphinx teaches us at last to ask questions ourselves?  Who is it really that puts questions to us here?  What really is this “Will to Truth” in us?  In fact we made a long halt at the question as to the origin of this Will—­until at last we came to an absolute standstill before a yet more fundamental question.  We inquired about the value of this Will.  Granted that we want the truth:  Why not rather untruth?  And uncertainty?  Even ignorance?  The problem of the value of truth presented itself before us—­or was it we who presented ourselves before the problem?  Which of us is the Oedipus here?  Which the Sphinx?  It would seem to be a rendezvous of questions and notes of interrogation.  And could it be believed that it at last seems to us as if the problem had never been propounded before, as if we were the first to discern it, get a sight of it, and risk raising it?  For there is risk in raising it, perhaps there is no greater risk.

2.  “How could anything originate out of its opposite?  For example, truth out of error? or the Will to Truth out of the will to deception? or the generous deed out of selfishness? or the pure sun-bright vision of the wise man out of covetousness?  Such genesis is impossible; whoever dreams of it is a fool, nay, worse than a fool; things of the highest value must have a different origin, an origin of their own—­in this transitory, seductive, illusory, paltry world, in this turmoil of delusion and cupidity, they cannot have their source.  But rather in the lap of Being, in the intransitory, in the concealed God, in the ’Thing-in-itself—­ there must be their source, and nowhere else!”—­This mode of reasoning discloses the typical prejudice by which metaphysicians of all times can be recognized, this mode of valuation is at the back of all their logical procedure; through this “belief” of theirs, they exert themselves for their “knowledge,” for something that is in the end solemnly christened “the Truth.”  The fundamental belief of metaphysicians is the belief in antitheses of values.  It never occurred even to the wariest of them to doubt here on the very threshold (where doubt, however, was most necessary); though they had made a solemn vow, “DE OMNIBUS DUBITANDUM.”  For it may be doubted, firstly, whether antitheses exist at all; and secondly, whether the popular valuations and antitheses of value upon which metaphysicians have set their seal, are not perhaps merely superficial estimates, merely provisional perspectives, besides being probably made from some corner, perhaps from below—­“frog perspectives,” as it were, to borrow an expression current among painters.  In spite of all the value which may belong to the true, the positive, and the unselfish, it might be possible that a higher and more fundamental value for life generally should be assigned to pretence, to the will to delusion, to selfishness, and cupidity.  It might even be possible that what constitutes the value of those good and respected things, consists precisely in their being insidiously related, knotted, and crocheted to these evil and apparently opposed things—­perhaps even in being essentially identical with them.  Perhaps!  But who wishes to concern himself with such dangerous “Perhapses”!  For that investigation one must await the advent of a new order of philosophers, such as will have other tastes and inclinations, the reverse of those hitherto prevalent—­philosophers of the dangerous “Perhaps” in every sense of the term.  And to speak in all seriousness, I see such new philosophers beginning to appear.

3.  Having kept a sharp eye on philosophers, and having read between their lines long enough, I now say to myself that the greater part of conscious thinking must be counted among the instinctive functions, and it is so even in the case of philosophical thinking; one has here to learn anew, as one learned anew about heredity and “innateness.”  As little as the act of birth comes into consideration in the whole process and procedure of heredity, just as little is “being-conscious” OPPOSED to the instinctive in any decisive sense; the greater part of the conscious thinking of a philosopher is secretly influenced by his instincts, and forced into definite channels.  And behind all logic and its seeming sovereignty of movement, there are valuations, or to speak more plainly, physiological demands, for the maintenance of a definite mode of life For example, that the certain is worth more than the uncertain, that illusion is less valuable than “truth” such valuations, in spite of their regulative importance for us, might notwithstanding be only superficial valuations, special kinds of maiserie, such as may be necessary for the maintenance of beings such as ourselves.  Supposing, in effect, that man is not just the “measure of things.”

4.  The falseness of an opinion is not for us any objection to it:  it is here, perhaps, that our new language sounds most strangely.  The question is, how far an opinion is life-furthering, life-preserving, species-preserving, perhaps species-rearing, and we are fundamentally inclined to maintain that the falsest opinions (to which the synthetic judgments a priori belong), are the most indispensable to us, that without a recognition of logical fictions, without a comparison of reality with the purely imagined world of the absolute and immutable, without a constant counterfeiting of the world by means of numbers, man could not live—­that the renunciation of false opinions would be a renunciation of life, a negation of life.  To RECOGNISE untruth as A condition of life; that is certainly to impugn the traditional ideas of value in a dangerous manner, and a philosophy which ventures to do so, has thereby alone placed itself beyond good and evil.

5.  That which causes philosophers to be regarded half-distrustfully and half-mockingly, is not the oft-repeated discovery how innocent they are—­how often and easily they make mistakes and lose their way, in short, how childish and childlike they are,—­but that there is not enough honest dealing with them, whereas they all raise a loud and virtuous outcry when the problem of truthfulness is even hinted at in the remotest manner.  They all pose as though their real opinions had been discovered and attained through the self-evolving of a cold, pure, divinely indifferent dialectic (in contrast to all sorts of mystics, who, fairer and foolisher, talk of “inspiration”), whereas, in fact, a prejudiced proposition, idea, or “suggestion,” which is generally their heart’s desire abstracted and refined, is defended by them with arguments sought out after the event.  They are all advocates who do not wish to be regarded as such, generally astute defenders, also, of their prejudices, which they dub “truths,”—­ and very far from having the conscience which bravely admits this to itself, very far from having the good taste of the courage which goes so far as to let this be understood, perhaps to warn friend or foe, or in cheerful confidence and self-ridicule.  The spectacle of the Tartuffery of old Kant, equally stiff and decent, with which he entices us into the dialectic by-ways that lead (more correctly mislead) to his “categorical imperative”—­ makes us fastidious ones smile, we who find no small amusement in spying out the subtle tricks of old moralists and ethical preachers.  Or, still more so, the hocus-pocus in mathematical form, by means of which Spinoza has, as it were, clad his philosophy in mail and mask—­in fact, the “love of his wisdom,” to translate the term fairly and squarely—­in order thereby to strike terror at once into the heart of the assailant who should dare to cast a glance on that invincible maiden, that Pallas Athene:—­how much of personal timidity and vulnerability does this masquerade of a sickly recluse betray!

6.  It has gradually become clear to me what every great philosophy up till now has consisted of—­namely, the confession of its originator, and a species of involuntary and unconscious auto-biography; and moreover that the moral (or immoral) purpose in every philosophy has constituted the true vital germ out of which the entire plant has always grown.  Indeed, to understand how the abstrusest metaphysical assertions of a philosopher have been arrived at, it is always well (and wise) to first ask oneself:  “What morality do they (or does he) aim at?” Accordingly, I do not believe that an “impulse to knowledge” is the father of philosophy; but that another impulse, here as elsewhere, has only made use of knowledge (and mistaken knowledge!) as an instrument.  But whoever considers the fundamental impulses of man with a view to determining how far they may have here acted as inspiring GENII (or as demons and cobolds), will find that they have all practiced philosophy at one time or another, and that each one of them would have been only too glad to look upon itself as the ultimate end of existence and the legitimate LORD over all the other impulses.  For every impulse is imperious, and as such, attempts to philosophize.  To be sure, in the case of scholars, in the case of really scientific men, it may be otherwise—­“better,” if you will; there there may really be such a thing as an “impulse to knowledge,” some kind of small, independent clock-work, which, when well wound up, works away industriously to that end, without the rest of the scholarly impulses taking any material part therein.  The actual “interests” of the scholar, therefore, are generally in quite another direction—­in the family, perhaps, or in money-making, or in politics; it is, in fact, almost indifferent at what point of research his little machine is placed, and whether the hopeful young worker becomes a good philologist, a mushroom specialist, or a chemist; he is not CHARACTERISED by becoming this or that.  In the philosopher, on the contrary, there is absolutely nothing impersonal; and above all, his morality furnishes a decided and decisive testimony as to who he is,—­that is to say, in what order the deepest impulses of his nature stand to each other.

7.  How malicious philosophers can be!  I know of nothing more stinging than the joke Epicurus took the liberty of making on Plato and the Platonists; he called them Dionysiokolakes.  In its original sense, and on the face of it, the word signifies “Flatterers of Dionysius”—­consequently, tyrants’ accessories and lick-spittles; besides this, however, it is as much as to say, “They are all actors, there is nothing genuine about them” (for Dionysiokolax was a popular name for an actor).  And the latter is really the malignant reproach that Epicurus cast upon Plato:  he was annoyed by the grandiose manner, the mise en scene style of which Plato and his scholars were masters—­of which Epicurus was not a master!  He, the old school-teacher of Samos, who sat concealed in his little garden at Athens, and wrote three hundred books, perhaps out of rage and ambitious envy of Plato, who knows!  Greece took a hundred years to find out who the garden-god Epicurus really was.  Did she ever find out?

8.  There is a point in every philosophy at which the “conviction” of the philosopher appears on the scene; or, to put it in the words of an ancient mystery: 

Adventavit asinus, Pulcher et fortissimus.

9.  You desire to live “according to Nature”?  Oh, you noble Stoics, what fraud of words!  Imagine to yourselves a being like Nature, boundlessly extravagant, boundlessly indifferent, without purpose or consideration, without pity or justice, at once fruitful and barren and uncertain:  imagine to yourselves indifference as a power—­how could you live in accordance with such indifference?  To live—­is not that just endeavouring to be otherwise than this Nature?  Is not living valuing, preferring, being unjust, being limited, endeavouring to be different?  And granted that your imperative, “living according to Nature,” means actually the same as “living according to life”—­how could you do differently?  Why should you make a principle out of what you yourselves are, and must be?  In reality, however, it is quite otherwise with you:  while you pretend to read with rapture the canon of your law in Nature, you want something quite the contrary, you extraordinary stage-players and self-deluders!  In your pride you wish to dictate your morals and ideals to Nature, to Nature herself, and to incorporate them therein; you insist that it shall be Nature “according to the Stoa,” and would like everything to be made after your own image, as a vast, eternal glorification and generalism of Stoicism!  With all your love for truth, you have forced yourselves so long, so persistently, and with such hypnotic rigidity to see Nature falsely, that is to say, Stoically, that you are no longer able to see it otherwise—­ and to crown all, some unfathomable superciliousness gives you the Bedlamite hope that because you are able to tyrannize over yourselves—­Stoicism is self-tyranny—­Nature will also allow herself to be tyrannized over:  is not the Stoic a part of Nature? . . .  But this is an old and everlasting story:  what happened in old times with the Stoics still happens today, as soon as ever a philosophy begins to believe in itself.  It always creates the world in its own image; it cannot do otherwise; philosophy is this tyrannical impulse itself, the most spiritual Will to Power, the will to “creation of the world,” the will to the causa prima.

10.  The eagerness and subtlety, I should even say craftiness, with which the problem of “the real and the apparent world” is dealt with at present throughout Europe, furnishes food for thought and attention; and he who hears only a “Will to Truth” in the background, and nothing else, cannot certainly boast of the sharpest ears.  In rare and isolated cases, it may really have happened that such a Will to Truth—­a certain extravagant and adventurous pluck, a metaphysician’s ambition of the forlorn hope—­has participated therein:  that which in the end always prefers a handful of “certainty” to a whole cartload of beautiful possibilities; there may even be puritanical fanatics of conscience, who prefer to put their last trust in a sure nothing, rather than in an uncertain something.  But that is Nihilism, and the sign of a despairing, mortally wearied soul, notwithstanding the courageous bearing such a virtue may display.  It seems, however, to be otherwise with stronger and livelier thinkers who are still eager for life.  In that they side against appearance, and speak superciliously of “perspective,” in that they rank the credibility of their own bodies about as low as the credibility of the ocular evidence that “the earth stands still,” and thus, apparently, allowing with complacency their securest possession to escape (for what does one at present believe in more firmly than in one’s body?),—­who knows if they are not really trying to win back something which was formerly an even securer possession, something of the old domain of the faith of former times, perhaps the “immortal soul,” perhaps “the old God,” in short, ideas by which they could live better, that is to say, more vigorously and more joyously, than by “modern ideas”?  There is distrust of these modern ideas in this mode of looking at things, a disbelief in all that has been constructed yesterday and today; there is perhaps some slight admixture of satiety and scorn, which can no longer endure the BRIC-A-BRAC of ideas of the most varied origin, such as so-called Positivism at present throws on the market; a disgust of the more refined taste at the village-fair motleyness and patchiness of all these reality-philosophasters, in whom there is nothing either new or true, except this motleyness.  Therein it seems to me that we should agree with those skeptical anti-realists and knowledge-microscopists of the present day; their instinct, which repels them from modern reality, is unrefuted . . . what do their retrograde by-paths concern us!  The main thing about them is not that they wish to go “back,” but that they wish to get away therefrom.  A little more strength, swing, courage, and artistic power, and they would be off—­and not back!

11.  It seems to me that there is everywhere an attempt at present to divert attention from the actual influence which Kant exercised on German philosophy, and especially to ignore prudently the value which he set upon himself.  Kant was first and foremost proud of his Table of Categories; with it in his hand he said:  “This is the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics.”  Let us only understand this “could be”!  He was proud of having discovered a new faculty in man, the faculty of synthetic judgment a priori.  Granting that he deceived himself in this matter; the development and rapid flourishing of German philosophy depended nevertheless on his pride, and on the eager rivalry of the younger generation to discover if possible something—­at all events “new faculties”—­of which to be still prouder!—­But let us reflect for a moment—­it is high time to do so.  “How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?” Kant asks himself—­and what is really his answer?  “By means of A means (faculty)”—­but unfortunately not in five words, but so circumstantially, imposingly, and with such display of German profundity and verbal flourishes, that one altogether loses sight of the comical niaiserie allemande involved in such an answer.  People were beside themselves with delight over this new faculty, and the jubilation reached its climax when Kant further discovered a moral faculty in man—­for at that time Germans were still moral, not yet dabbling in the “Politics of hard fact.”  Then came the honeymoon of German philosophy.  All the young theologians of the Tubingen institution went immediately into the groves—­all seeking for “faculties.”  And what did they not find—­in that innocent, rich, and still youthful period of the German spirit, to which Romanticism, the malicious fairy, piped and sang, when one could not yet distinguish between “finding” and “inventing”!  Above all a faculty for the “transcendental”; Schelling christened it, intellectual intuition, and thereby gratified the most earnest longings of the naturally pious-inclined Germans.  One can do no greater wrong to the whole of this exuberant and eccentric movement (which was really youthfulness, notwithstanding that it disguised itself so boldly, in hoary and senile conceptions), than to take it seriously, or even treat it with moral indignation.  Enough, however—­the world grew older, and the dream vanished.  A time came when people rubbed their foreheads, and they still rub them today.  People had been dreaming, and first and foremost—­old Kant.  “By means of a means (faculty)”—­he had said, or at least meant to say.  But, is that—­an answer?  An explanation?  Or is it not rather merely a repetition of the question?  How does opium induce sleep?  “By means of a means (faculty),” namely the virtus dormitiva, replies the doctor in Moliere,

    Quia est in eo virtus dormitiva,
    Cujus est natura sensus assoupire.

But such replies belong to the realm of comedy, and it is high time to replace the Kantian question, “How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?” by another question, “Why is belief in such judgments necessary?”—­in effect, it is high time that we should understand that such judgments must be believed to be true, for the sake of the preservation of creatures like ourselves; though they still might naturally be false judgments!  Or, more plainly spoken, and roughly and readily—­synthetic judgments a priori should not “be possible” at all; we have no right to them; in our mouths they are nothing but false judgments.  Only, of course, the belief in their truth is necessary, as plausible belief and ocular evidence belonging to the perspective view of life.  And finally, to call to mind the enormous influence which “German philosophy”—­I hope you understand its right to inverted commas (goosefeet)?—­has exercised throughout the whole of Europe, there is no doubt that a certain virtus dormitiva had a share in it; thanks to German philosophy, it was a delight to the noble idlers, the virtuous, the mystics, the artiste, the three-fourths Christians, and the political obscurantists of all nations, to find an antidote to the still overwhelming sensualism which overflowed from the last century into this, in short—­“sensus assoupire.” . . .

12.  As regards materialistic atomism, it is one of the best-refuted theories that have been advanced, and in Europe there is now perhaps no one in the learned world so unscholarly as to attach serious signification to it, except for convenient everyday use (as an abbreviation of the means of expression)—­ thanks chiefly to the Pole Boscovich:  he and the Pole Copernicus have hitherto been the greatest and most successful opponents of ocular evidence.  For while Copernicus has persuaded us to believe, contrary to all the senses, that the earth does not stand fast, Boscovich has taught us to abjure the belief in the last thing that “stood fast” of the earth—­the belief in “substance,” in “matter,” in the earth-residuum, and particle-atom:  it is the greatest triumph over the senses that has hitherto been gained on earth.  One must, however, go still further, and also declare war, relentless war to the knife, against the “atomistic requirements” which still lead a dangerous after-life in places where no one suspects them, like the more celebrated “metaphysical requirements”:  one must also above all give the finishing stroke to that other and more portentous atomism which Christianity has taught best and longest, the soul-atomism.  Let it be permitted to designate by this expression the belief which regards the soul as something indestructible, eternal, indivisible, as a monad, as an atomon:  this belief ought to be expelled from science!  Between ourselves, it is not at all necessary to get rid of “the soul” thereby, and thus renounce one of the oldest and most venerated hypotheses—­as happens frequently to the clumsiness of naturalists, who can hardly touch on the soul without immediately losing it.  But the way is open for new acceptations and refinements of the soul-hypothesis; and such conceptions as “mortal soul,” and “soul of subjective multiplicity,” and “soul as social structure of the instincts and passions,” want henceforth to have legitimate rights in science.  In that the new psychologist is about to put an end to the superstitions which have hitherto flourished with almost tropical luxuriance around the idea of the soul, he is really, as it were, thrusting himself into a new desert and a new distrust—­it is possible that the older psychologists had a merrier and more comfortable time of it; eventually, however, he finds that precisely thereby he is also condemned to invent—­and, who knows? perhaps to discover the new.

13.  Psychologists should bethink themselves before putting down the instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic being.  A living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength—­life itself is will to power; self-preservation is only one of the indirect and most frequent results thereof.  In short, here, as everywhere else, let us beware of superfluous teleological principles!—­one of which is the instinct of self-preservation (we owe it to Spinoza’s inconsistency).  It is thus, in effect, that method ordains, which must be essentially economy of principles.

14.  It is perhaps just dawning on five or six minds that natural philosophy is only a world-exposition and world-arrangement (according to us, if I may say so!) and not a world-explanation; but in so far as it is based on belief in the senses, it is regarded as more, and for a long time to come must be regarded as more—­namely, as an explanation.  It has eyes and fingers of its own, it has ocular evidence and palpableness of its own:  this operates fascinatingly, persuasively, and CONVINCINGLY upon an age with fundamentally plebeian tastes—­in fact, it follows instinctively the canon of truth of eternal popular sensualism.  What is clear, what is “explained”?  Only that which can be seen and felt—­one must pursue every problem thus far.  Obversely, however, the charm of the Platonic mode of thought, which was an aristocratic mode, consisted precisely in resistance to obvious sense-evidence—­perhaps among men who enjoyed even stronger and more fastidious senses than our contemporaries, but who knew how to find a higher triumph in remaining masters of them:  and this by means of pale, cold, grey conceptional networks which they threw over the motley whirl of the senses—­the mob of the senses, as Plato said.  In this overcoming of the world, and interpreting of the world in the manner of Plato, there was an enjoyment different from that which the physicists of today offer us—­and likewise the Darwinists and anti-teleologists among the physiological workers, with their principle of the “smallest possible effort,” and the greatest possible blunder.  “Where there is nothing more to see or to grasp, there is also nothing more for men to do”—­that is certainly an imperative different from the Platonic one, but it may notwithstanding be the right imperative for a hardy, laborious race of machinists and bridge-builders of the future, who have nothing but rough work to perform.

15.  To study physiology with a clear conscience, one must insist on the fact that the sense-organs are not phenomena in the sense of the idealistic philosophy; as such they certainly could not be causes!  Sensualism, therefore, at least as regulative hypothesis, if not as heuristic principle.  What?  And others say even that the external world is the work of our organs?  But then our body, as a part of this external world, would be the work of our organs!  But then our organs themselves would be the work of our organs!  It seems to me that this is a complete REDUCTIO ad ABSURDUM, if the conception causa SUI is something fundamentally absurd.  Consequently, the external world is not the work of our organs—?

16.  There are still harmless self-observers who believe that there are “immediate certainties”; for instance, “I think,” or as the superstition of Schopenhauer puts it, “I will”; as though cognition here got hold of its object purely and simply as “the thing in itself,” without any falsification taking place either on the part of the subject or the object.  I would repeat it, however, a hundred times, that “immediate certainty,” as well as “absolute knowledge” and the “thing in itself,” involve a CONTRADICTIO in ADJECTO; we really ought to free ourselves from the misleading significance of words!  The people on their part may think that cognition is knowing all about things, but the philosopher must say to himself:  “When I analyze the process that is expressed in the sentence, ‘I think,’ I find a whole series of daring assertions, the argumentative proof of which would be difficult, perhaps impossible:  for instance, that it is I who think, that there must necessarily be something that thinks, that thinking is an activity and operation on the part of a being who is thought of as a cause, that there is an ‘ego,’ and finally, that it is already determined what is to be designated by thinking—­that I know what thinking is.  For if I had not already decided within myself what it is, by what standard could I determine whether that which is just happening is not perhaps ‘willing’ or ‘feeling’?  In short, the assertion ‘I think,’ assumes that I compare my state at the present moment with other states of myself which I know, in order to determine what it is; on account of this retrospective connection with further ‘knowledge,’ it has, at any rate, no immediate certainty for me.”—­In place of the “immediate certainty” in which the people may believe in the special case, the philosopher thus finds a series of metaphysical questions presented to him, veritable conscience questions of the intellect, to wit:  “Whence did I get the notion of ‘thinking’?  Why do I believe in cause and effect?  What gives me the right to speak of an ‘ego,’ and even of an ‘ego’ as cause, and finally of an ‘ego’ as cause of thought?” He who ventures to answer these metaphysical questions at once by an appeal to a sort of INTUITIVE perception, like the person who says, “I think, and know that this, at least, is true, actual, and certain”—­will encounter a smile and two notes of interrogation in a philosopher nowadays.  “Sir,” the philosopher will perhaps give him to understand, “it is improbable that you are not mistaken, but why should it be the truth?”

17.  With regard to the superstitions of logicians, I shall never tire of emphasizing a small, terse fact, which is unwillingly recognized by these credulous minds—­namely, that a thought comes when “it” wishes, and not when “I” wish; so that it is a perversion of the facts of the case to say that the subject “I” is the condition of the predicate “think.”  One thinks; but that this “one” is precisely the famous old “ego,” is, to put it mildly, only a supposition, an assertion, and assuredly not an “immediate certainty.”  After all, one has even gone too far with this “one thinks”—­even the “one” contains an interpretation of the process, and does not belong to the process itself.  One infers here according to the usual grammatical formula—­“To think is an activity; every activity requires an agency that is active; consequently” . . .  It was pretty much on the same lines that the older atomism sought, besides the operating “power,” the material particle wherein it resides and out of which it operates—­the atom.  More rigorous minds, however, learnt at last to get along without this “earth-residuum,” and perhaps some day we shall accustom ourselves, even from the logician’s point of view, to get along without the little “one” (to which the worthy old “ego” has refined itself).

18.  It is certainly not the least charm of a theory that it is refutable; it is precisely thereby that it attracts the more subtle minds.  It seems that the hundred-times-refuted theory of the “free will” owes its persistence to this charm alone; some one is always appearing who feels himself strong enough to refute it.

19.  Philosophers are accustomed to speak of the will as though it were the best-known thing in the world; indeed, Schopenhauer has given us to understand that the will alone is really known to us, absolutely and completely known, without deduction or addition.  But it again and again seems to me that in this case Schopenhauer also only did what philosophers are in the habit of doing—­he seems to have adopted a popular prejudice and exaggerated it.  Willing seems to me to be above all something complicated, something that is a unity only in name—­and it is precisely in a name that popular prejudice lurks, which has got the mastery over the inadequate precautions of philosophers in all ages.  So let us for once be more cautious, let us be “unphilosophical”:  let us say that in all willing there is firstly a plurality of sensations, namely, the sensation of the condition “Away from which we go,” the sensation of the condition “TOWARDS which we go,” the sensation of this “From” and “TOWARDS” itself, and then besides, an accompanying muscular sensation, which, even without our putting in motion “arms and legs,” commences its action by force of habit, directly we “will” anything.  Therefore, just as sensations (and indeed many kinds of sensations) are to be recognized as ingredients of the will, so, in the second place, thinking is also to be recognized; in every act of the will there is a ruling thought;—­and let us not imagine it possible to sever this thought from the “willing,” as if the will would then remain over!  In the third place, the will is not only a complex of sensation and thinking, but it is above all an emotion, and in fact the emotion of the command.  That which is termed “freedom of the will” is essentially the emotion of supremacy in respect to him who must obey:  “I am free, ‘he’ must obey”—­this consciousness is inherent in every will; and equally so the straining of the attention, the straight look which fixes itself exclusively on one thing, the unconditional judgment that “this and nothing else is necessary now,” the inward certainty that obedience will be rendered—­and whatever else pertains to the position of the commander.  A man who wills commands something within himself which renders obedience, or which he believes renders obedience.  But now let us notice what is the strangest thing about the will,—­this affair so extremely complex, for which the people have only one name.  Inasmuch as in the given circumstances we are at the same time the commanding and the obeying parties, and as the obeying party we know the sensations of constraint, impulsion, pressure, resistance, and motion, which usually commence immediately after the act of will; inasmuch as, on the other hand, we are accustomed to disregard this duality, and to deceive ourselves about it by means of the synthetic term “I”:  a whole series of erroneous conclusions, and consequently of false judgments about the will itself, has become attached to the act of willing—­to such a degree that he who wills believes firmly that willing SUFFICES for action.  Since in the majority of cases there has only been exercise of will when the effect of the command—­consequently obedience, and therefore action—­was to be expected, the appearance has translated itself into the sentiment, as if there were a necessity of effect; in a word, he who wills believes with a fair amount of certainty that will and action are somehow one; he ascribes the success, the carrying out of the willing, to the will itself, and thereby enjoys an increase of the sensation of power which accompanies all success.  “Freedom of Will”—­that is the expression for the complex state of delight of the person exercising volition, who commands and at the same time identifies himself with the executor of the order—­ who, as such, enjoys also the triumph over obstacles, but thinks within himself that it was really his own will that overcame them.  In this way the person exercising volition adds the feelings of delight of his successful executive instruments, the useful “underwills” or under-souls—­indeed, our body is but a social structure composed of many souls—­to his feelings of delight as commander.  L’EFFET c’est MOI. what happens here is what happens in every well-constructed and happy commonwealth, namely, that the governing class identifies itself with the successes of the commonwealth.  In all willing it is absolutely a question of commanding and obeying, on the basis, as already said, of a social structure composed of many “souls”, on which account a philosopher should claim the right to include willing-as-such within the sphere of morals—­regarded as the doctrine of the relations of supremacy under which the phenomenon of “life” manifests itself.

20.  That the separate philosophical ideas are not anything optional or autonomously evolving, but grow up in connection and relationship with each other, that, however suddenly and arbitrarily they seem to appear in the history of thought, they nevertheless belong just as much to a system as the collective members of the fauna of a Continent—­is betrayed in the end by the circumstance:  how unfailingly the most diverse philosophers always fill in again a definite fundamental scheme of possible philosophies.  Under an invisible spell, they always revolve once more in the same orbit, however independent of each other they may feel themselves with their critical or systematic wills, something within them leads them, something impels them in definite order the one after the other—­to wit, the innate methodology and relationship of their ideas.  Their thinking is, in fact, far less a discovery than a re-recognizing, a remembering, a return and a home-coming to a far-off, ancient common-household of the soul, out of which those ideas formerly grew:  philosophizing is so far a kind of atavism of the highest order.  The wonderful family resemblance of all Indian, Greek, and German philosophizing is easily enough explained.  In fact, where there is affinity of language, owing to the common philosophy of grammar—­I mean owing to the unconscious domination and guidance of similar grammatical functions—­it cannot but be that everything is prepared at the outset for a similar development and succession of philosophical systems, just as the way seems barred against certain other possibilities of world-interpretation.  It is highly probable that philosophers within the domain of the Ural-Altaic languages (where the conception of the subject is least developed) look otherwise “into the world,” and will be found on paths of thought different from those of the Indo-Germans and Mussulmans, the spell of certain grammatical functions is ultimately also the spell of physiological valuations and racial conditions.—­So much by way of rejecting Locke’s superficiality with regard to the origin of ideas.

21.  The causa SUI is the best self-contradiction that has yet been conceived, it is a sort of logical violation and unnaturalness; but the extravagant pride of man has managed to entangle itself profoundly and frightfully with this very folly.  The desire for “freedom of will” in the superlative, metaphysical sense, such as still holds sway, unfortunately, in the minds of the half-educated, the desire to bear the entire and ultimate responsibility for one’s actions oneself, and to absolve God, the world, ancestors, chance, and society therefrom, involves nothing less than to be precisely this causa SUI, and, with more than Munchausen daring, to pull oneself up into existence by the hair, out of the slough of nothingness.  If any one should find out in this manner the crass stupidity of the celebrated conception of “free will” and put it out of his head altogether, I beg of him to carry his “enlightenment” a step further, and also put out of his head the contrary of this monstrous conception of “free will”:  I mean “non-free will,” which is tantamount to a misuse of cause and effect.  One should not wrongly MATERIALISE “cause” and “effect,” as the natural philosophers do (and whoever like them naturalize in thinking at present), according to the prevailing mechanical doltishness which makes the cause press and push until it “effects” its end; one should use “cause” and “effect” only as pure conceptions, that is to say, as conventional fictions for the purpose of designation and mutual understanding,—­not for explanation.  In “being-in-itself” there is nothing of “casual-connection,” of “necessity,” or of “psychological non-freedom”; there the effect does not follow the cause, there “law” does not obtain.  It is we alone who have devised cause, sequence, reciprocity, relativity, constraint, number, law, freedom, motive, and purpose; and when we interpret and intermix this symbol-world, as “being-in-itself,” with things, we act once more as we have always acted—­MYTHOLOGICALLY.  The “non-free will” is mythology; in real life it is only a question of strong and weak wills.—­It is almost always a symptom of what is lacking in himself, when a thinker, in every “causal-connection” and “psychological necessity,” manifests something of compulsion, indigence, obsequiousness, oppression, and non-freedom; it is suspicious to have such feelings—­the person betrays himself.  And in general, if I have observed correctly, the “non-freedom of the will” is regarded as a problem from two entirely opposite standpoints, but always in a profoundly personal manner:  some will not give up their “responsibility,” their belief in themselves, the personal right to their merits, at any price (the vain races belong to this class); others on the contrary, do not wish to be answerable for anything, or blamed for anything, and owing to an inward self-contempt, seek to get out of the business, no matter how.  The latter, when they write books, are in the habit at present of taking the side of criminals; a sort of socialistic sympathy is their favourite disguise.  And as a matter of fact, the fatalism of the weak-willed embellishes itself surprisingly when it can pose as “la religion de la souffrance humaine”; that is its “good taste.”

22.  Let me be pardoned, as an old philologist who cannot desist from the mischief of putting his finger on bad modes of interpretation, but “Nature’s conformity to law,” of which you physicists talk so proudly, as though—­why, it exists only owing to your interpretation and bad “philology.”  It is no matter of fact, no “text,” but rather just a naively humanitarian adjustment and perversion of meaning, with which you make abundant concessions to the democratic instincts of the modern soul!  “Everywhere equality before the law—­Nature is not different in that respect, nor better than we”:  a fine instance of secret motive, in which the vulgar antagonism to everything privileged and autocratic—­likewise a second and more refined atheism—­is once more disguised.  “Ni dieu, ni maitre”—­that, also, is what you want; and therefore “Cheers for natural law!”—­ is it not so?  But, as has been said, that is interpretation, not text; and somebody might come along, who, with opposite intentions and modes of interpretation, could read out of the same “Nature,” and with regard to the same phenomena, just the tyrannically inconsiderate and relentless enforcement of the claims of power—­an interpreter who should so place the unexceptionalness and unconditionalness of all “Will to Power” before your eyes, that almost every word, and the word “tyranny” itself, would eventually seem unsuitable, or like a weakening and softening metaphor—­as being too human; and who should, nevertheless, end by asserting the same about this world as you do, namely, that it has a “necessary” and “calculable” course, not, however, because laws obtain in it, but because they are absolutely lacking, and every power effects its ultimate consequences every moment.  Granted that this also is only interpretation—­and you will be eager enough to make this objection?—­well, so much the better.

23.  All psychology hitherto has run aground on moral prejudices and timidities, it has not dared to launch out into the depths.  In so far as it is allowable to recognize in that which has hitherto been written, evidence of that which has hitherto been kept silent, it seems as if nobody had yet harboured the notion of psychology as the Morphology and development-doctrine of the will to power, as I conceive of it.  The power of moral prejudices has penetrated deeply into the most intellectual world, the world apparently most indifferent and unprejudiced, and has obviously operated in an injurious, obstructive, blinding, and distorting manner.  A proper physio-psychology has to contend with unconscious antagonism in the heart of the investigator, it has “the heart” against it even a doctrine of the reciprocal conditionalness of the “good” and the “bad” impulses, causes (as refined immorality) distress and aversion in a still strong and manly conscience—­still more so, a doctrine of the derivation of all good impulses from bad ones.  If, however, a person should regard even the emotions of hatred, envy, covetousness, and imperiousness as life-conditioning emotions, as factors which must be present, fundamentally and essentially, in the general economy of life (which must, therefore, be further developed if life is to be further developed), he will suffer from such a view of things as from sea-sickness.  And yet this hypothesis is far from being the strangest and most painful in this immense and almost new domain of dangerous knowledge, and there are in fact a hundred good reasons why every one should keep away from it who can do so!  On the other hand, if one has once drifted hither with one’s bark, well! very good! now let us set our teeth firmly! let us open our eyes and keep our hand fast on the helm!  We sail away right over morality, we crush out, we destroy perhaps the remains of our own morality by daring to make our voyage thither—­but what do we matter.  Never yet did a profounder world of insight reveal itself to daring travelers and adventurers, and the psychologist who thus “makes a sacrifice”—­it is not the sacrifizio dell’ intelletto, on the contrary!—­will at least be entitled to demand in return that psychology shall once more be recognized as the queen of the sciences, for whose service and equipment the other sciences exist.  For psychology is once more the path to the fundamental problems.